Latest Civics / Political Science NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th)
8th				9th				10th				11th				12th

Class 8th Chapters
1. The Indian Constitution	2. Understanding Secularism	3. Parliament and the Making of Laws
4. Judiciary	5. Understanding Marginalisation	6. Confronting Marginalisation
7. Public Facilities	8. Law and Social Justice

Chapter 1 The Indian Constitution

Just as games like football or hockey are defined by fundamental rules that differentiate them from other games (termed **constitutive rules**), societies also have such foundational rules. These rules shape what a society is and distinguish it from others.

In diverse, large societies where multiple communities coexist, these governing rules are typically established through **consensus** (agreement). In modern nations, this collective agreement is usually recorded in a **written document**, which is called a **Constitution**. This document serves as the foundational law of the land.

Why Does A Country Need A Constitution?

Most countries globally have a Constitution, and it serves several crucial purposes, particularly for democratic nations. While all democratic countries have constitutions, merely possessing a constitution does not automatically make a country democratic.

Here are the key reasons why a country needs a Constitution:

1. **Establishing Ideals and Defining the Nature of Society:** A Constitution sets forth the guiding **ideals** and principles that citizens aspire to live by and the kind of country they envision. It reveals the **fundamental nature of the society**. In a nation composed of different communities with varying beliefs, a constitution provides a shared set of rules and principles that all members can agree upon as the basis for governance. This includes deciding the type of government and the core values the country should uphold.

The call for a **Constituent Assembly** to draft a constitution for India was first made by the **Indian National Congress in 1934**. This demand, for an assembly consisting solely of Indians, gained momentum, leading to its formation in **December 1946**. The members of this assembly, free from British rule after 150 years, worked from December 1946 to November 1949 with the strong ideals forged during the freedom struggle to draft the constitution for independent India.

This photo depicts Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the Constituent Assembly, highlighting a significant moment in the process of establishing independent India's foundational document.

The experience of **Nepal** illustrates the critical need for a constitution that aligns with the people's aspirations for their country. Nepal was a monarchy with a constitution (adopted in 1990) that placed final authority with the King. Decades of struggle by the people led to the establishment of democracy in 2006 and the end of the monarchy. The people decided to adopt a **new constitution in 2015** because the previous one did not reflect the ideals of the democratic nation they had fought to create. Just as altering the constitutive rules changes a game entirely, transitioning from a monarchy to a democracy required a new constitution to establish a new societal structure.

2. **Defining the Political System and Preventing Misuse of Power:** A constitution defines the type of **political system** a country will have (e.g., monarchy, democracy). In democracies, it provides crucial guidelines for **decision-making**. While elected leaders exercise power on behalf of the people, there is always the possibility of them **misusing their authority**. The constitution includes **safeguards** against this potential misuse, which could otherwise lead to significant injustice.

The Indian Constitution, for instance, addresses this risk. The section on **Fundamental Rights** contains provisions that protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the state and other individuals. This ensures that even elected representatives act within defined limits and do not infringe upon the basic rights of the people. An example is the **Right to Equality**, which prohibits discrimination by the state or individuals based on religion, race, caste, gender, or place of birth.

Storyboard depicting a class monitor misusing his power over a classmate.

This scenario illustrates how a person in a position of authority, like a class monitor, can misuse their power unfairly, causing injustice to others. This type of situation highlights the importance of rules and safeguards against the arbitrary exercise of power, which constitutions provide at the state level.

3. **Preventing the Tyranny of the Majority:** Constitutions are essential to protect against the **domination or tyranny of the majority** over minority groups. This domination can occur between different communities (e.g., a religious majority suppressing a minority) or within the same community (e.g., upper castes dominating lower castes). A constitution includes rules to ensure that minorities are not excluded from enjoying rights, opportunities, or access to resources and public spaces that are available to the majority.

Storyboard depicting boys, being the majority, choosing the game to play over the girls' preference.

This scenario shows how a majority group (boys) can dominate a minority group (girls) in decision-making within a group, such as choosing a game to play. This illustrates the concept of the tyranny of the majority, where the desires of a larger group override those of a smaller one, highlighting the need for constitutional principles to protect minority interests and ensure fair representation.

4. **Protecting Against Self-Harm:** A Constitution also helps **protect citizens from decisions they might impulsively make that could negatively impact their own long-term interests or the fundamental principles of the country**. For example, public frustration with political inefficiencies might lead some to wish for a strong leader with absolute power. However, dictatorial rule, in the long run, undermines the very freedoms and rights that citizens value. A strong constitution is designed with a basic structure that is difficult to change based on temporary sentiments, thus safeguarding the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens and preventing the easy dismantling of democratic principles.

Storyboard depicting a student, Shabnam, debating whether to watch TV or study and deciding against TV.

This scenario illustrates the idea of protecting oneself from short-term temptations (watching TV) that could harm a long-term goal (doing well on a test). On a larger scale, constitutions can be seen as rules that help a society commit to its long-term principles (like democracy and rights) even when faced with temporary desires or frustrations that might favour authoritarianism or compromise fundamental values.

In conclusion, the Constitution plays a vital and multifaceted role in democratic societies by establishing foundational ideals, defining the political structure, limiting power, protecting minorities, and safeguarding core principles against temporary impulses.

The Indian Constitution: Key Features

The Indian Constitution was shaped by the decades-long struggle for independence and the desire to create a free India based on principles of equality and participation, in contrast to the authoritarian experience of colonial rule. The task of framing the rules for this democratic government was undertaken by the **Constituent Assembly**, a body of around 300 members who worked from 1946 to 1949.

The Constituent Assembly members faced immense challenges, including India's vast diversity (languages, religions, cultures), the turmoil of Partition, the integration of Princely States, and widespread poverty. Despite this, they produced a visionary document that successfully balanced the need for **national unity** with respect for **diversity**. The constitution also aimed for **socio-economic reform** to address poverty and empowered citizens through their right to **choose representatives**.

**Dr. B.R. Ambedkar** is recognised as the **Father of the Indian Constitution**. His role was crucial in ensuring safeguards for marginalised communities like the Scheduled Castes, although he also stressed the importance of their active participation in government and civil services for effective implementation of these rights.

Let's examine some of the key features that embody the vision and concerns of the Constitution's framers:

Federalism

**Federalism** means the existence of **more than one level of government** in the country. In India, we have the **central government**, **state governments**, and the **Panchayati Raj/municipalities** as the third tier.

This multi-tiered structure was necessary for a country as vast and diverse as India, ensuring that governance is not solely concentrated in the capital but also addresses the specific needs of different regions. While states have autonomy on certain issues, subjects of national importance are handled by the central government. The Constitution clearly defines the powers and responsibilities of each tier through legislative lists and specifies their sources of revenue. States derive their authority directly from the Constitution, making them integral units of the federation, not merely agents of the central government. All citizens are governed by laws from each of these levels.

Parliamentary Form Of Government

The Indian Constitution establishes a **Parliamentary form of government**, where representatives at all levels are **elected by the people**. It guarantees **universal adult suffrage**, meaning all citizens aged 18 and above have the right to vote, irrespective of their background. The framers believed this would promote democracy and break down traditional hierarchies.

Citizens directly elect their representatives, and importantly, any citizen can contest elections. Elected representatives are **accountable to the people**, a fundamental principle of this system.

Photo showing people standing in line to cast their votes in an election.

This image illustrates the practice of citizens queuing to vote, representing universal adult suffrage, a core feature of India's Parliamentary form of government where people directly participate in electing their accountable representatives.

Separation Of Powers

To prevent the concentration and misuse of power, the Constitution divides governmental powers among three distinct organs:

The **Legislature** (elected representatives who make laws).
The **Executive** (a smaller group responsible for implementing laws and running the government).
The **Judiciary** (the system of courts that interprets laws and administers justice).

Each organ has specific powers. This separation ensures that no single branch becomes too powerful. By acting as **checks** on each other, these organs maintain a **balance of power** within the government system.

Fundamental Rights

Often called the "**conscience**" of the Constitution, the section on **Fundamental Rights** safeguards citizens against the state's arbitrary and absolute power. Rooted in the nationalist movement's distrust of the colonial state, these written rights protect individuals from the misuse of state authority and discrimination by other individuals. They also specifically guarantee the rights of minority communities against potential majority dominance. According to Dr. Ambedkar, these rights empower citizens to claim them and are binding on all law-making authorities.

In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution includes **Directive Principles of State Policy**. These principles guide the state in enacting laws for **socio-economic reform**, aiming to reduce poverty and promote welfare, though they are not directly enforceable in courts.

The six Fundamental Rights are:

**Right to Equality:** Guarantees equal treatment before the law, prohibits discrimination based on religion, caste, or sex, ensures equal access to public places, and prohibits state discrimination in employment. Abolishes untouchability.
**Right to Freedom:** Includes freedoms like speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and practising any profession or business.
**Right against Exploitation:** Prohibits human trafficking (illegal trade in people), forced labour, and child labour (under 14 in hazardous work).
**Right to Freedom of Religion:** Grants religious freedom to all citizens, including the right to practice, profess, and propagate their chosen religion.
**Cultural and Educational Rights:** Protects minorities' rights to preserve their culture and language by establishing and administering their own educational institutions.
**Right to Constitutional Remedies:** Allows citizens to approach the courts to seek enforcement of their Fundamental Rights if they are violated by the State.

Secularism

**Secularism** is a vital feature, meaning the state does **not officially promote any one religion** as the state religion. The Indian state maintains a principled distance from all religions, treating them equally and upholding religious freedom for all citizens. This principle is further elaborated in the next chapter.

The constitution-making process is deeply tied to a country's history and aspirations. It defines the ideals and framework for governance. The Indian Constitution, while providing a robust structure, can be amended to reflect evolving societal concerns. Understanding these key features is fundamental to comprehending the basis of Indian democracy.

Photos of members of the Constituent Assembly signing the Constitution on January 24, 1950, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr Rajendra Prasad, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Dr John Mathai, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Shri Jagjivan Ram.

These photos show various prominent members of the Constituent Assembly, including Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and President Dr Rajendra Prasad, signing the final copy of the Constitution on 24 January 1950, marking the formal adoption of India's foundational document.

The Constitution also outlines **Fundamental Duties** for citizens, which are civic responsibilities important for the effective functioning of a democracy.